The Enlightenment – Strategic Objectives

The Enlightenment, with its emphasis upon reason and individualism and rejection of traditional social, religious and political ideas, was once thought to be a French-focused intellectual movement inspired by the natural sciences – and centred upon a group of philosophers, some of whom were associated with the great multi-volume Encyclopédie (1751–72). French philosophes such as Diderot strove to apply the methods of the sciences to history and other aspects of human affairs, and some of their work was characterised by religious scepticism and sympathy for political reforms. In recent decades, the importance of distinctive national enlightenments, including English and Scottish movements, has been emphasised.¹ Scholars have also explored through the concept of ‘Industrial Enlightenment’² the interface between the Enlightenment and the Industrial, Agricultural and Scientific Revolutions, and have broadened the scope of the British Enlightenment to encompass all aspects of thought and culture, including the sciences, the fine and mechanical arts, religion, literature and music.³

Taking advantage of this broader definition of the Enlightenment, and utilising rich museum and archive collections, studies of the Valley have moved from focusing upon the origins and impact of the Industrial Revolution towards exploring the interactions between industry, the arts and sciences. The proliferation of printed material and novel ideas, new forms of sociability and opportunities for travel facilitated by improved communications, fostered philosophical networks and created new audiences for the sciences and Enlightenment ideas which require more investigation.⁴ Distinctive urban and rural dimensions of Enlightenment cultures also merit greater analysis, including aspects of sociability promoted by the urban renaissance⁵ and town government, institutions and associations. We need to enhance our understanding of how the intellectual excitement of the Enlightenment impacted upon the region as the sciences revealed an expanding cosmos, microscopes revealed countless smaller worlds and miners and engineers exposed mysterious subterranean realms. The work of Wright⁶ and Darwin⁷ has been relatively well studied, but more analysis is needed of the nature of scientific activity and its regional impact, including how experiences of local topography, geology and natural history inspired (and were shaped by) the sciences, literature and artistic representation. This should include further studies of those inspired by the Valley, including writers, natural philosophers, mineral collectors, mechanics, artists and craftsmen, and consideration of the extent to which women, the working classes and young people were captivated by this intellectual effervescence.

Paul Elliott and George Revill

Fig. 4.14 Clockmaker and engineer John Whitehurst (1713–88) was inspired by lead mining, natural theology and Newtonian mechanics to explore the geology of Derbyshire (by Joseph Wright; © Derby Museums Trust)

References

¹ Elliott, P A 2010 Enlightenment, Modernity and Science: Geographies of Scientific Culture and Improvement in Georgian England. London: Tauris; Porter, R 2000 Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World. London: Allen Lane; Porter, R and Teich, M (eds) 1981 The Enlightenment in National Context. Cambridge: CUP

² Jones, P M 2008 Industrial Enlightenment: Science, Technology and Culture in Birmingham and the West Midlands. Manchester: MUP

³ Fox, C 2009 The Arts of Industry in the Age of Enlightenment. New Haven: YUP; Brewer, J 2002 The Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the 18th Century. London: Harper Perennial;

⁴ Elliott, P A 2009 The Derby Philosophers: Science and Culture in British Urban Society. Manchester: MUP; Schofield, R E 1963 The Lunar Society of Birmingham. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Uglow, J 2002 The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future. London: Faber

⁵ Borsay, P 1991 The English Urban Renaissance. Oxford: Clarendon Press

⁶ Daniels, S 1999 Joseph Wright. London: Tate Gallery; Nicolson, B 1969 Joseph Wright: Painter of Light. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

⁷ King-Hele, D 1999 Erasmus Darwin: A Life of Unequalled Achievement. London: G de la Mare

The ‘Industrial Enlightenment’¹ prefigures the close relationships between industry, science and technology that characterise the Industrial Revolution,² but debate continues about the nature of these relationships and the extent to which the ‘Scientific Revolution’ fostered industrialisation. During the 1950s and 1960s, various scholars argued that the sciences had spurred industrialisation through, for example, the activities of the Lunar Society.³ Less work was done on the Derwent Valley, but Robinson believed that the Derby Philosophical Society had served to promote industrial development.⁴ Historians have emphasised how the Newtonian sciences were celebrated as a public cultural activity and informed practical mechanics,⁵ whilst Mokyr⁶ has emphasised the significance of the ‘knowledge economy’ in which the knowledge and technological innovation brought by natural philosophers fostered industrial growth.

Some aspects of Derwent Valley industrialisation demonstrate links between science, technology and industrial innovation and support the idea of a preceding ‘Industrial Enlightenment’. It would be particularly useful, therefore, to explore the scientific and technological activities and interests of industrialists, entrepreneurs and the labouring population. Whilst the activities of the Strutts and Arkwrights are well known,⁷ and Wright’s ‘scientific’ candlelight paintings are familiar,⁸ the role of such representations of science and industry in promoting the sciences, mechanical ingenuity and industrial innovation merits more enquiry. Further investigation of the membership and activities of scientific associations would also help, including Derby’s Philosophical Society and Mechanics’ Institute.⁹ Other subjects for study include the kinds of scientific books which were circulated, the role of newspapers and opportunities for scientific education, including the location, content and frequency of scientific lectures and their audiences. The claims for interaction between the sciences, practical mechanics and industry are supported by the activities of individuals such as John Whitehurst and the more shadowy George Sorocold, but further studies are recommended of lesser known mechanics, surveyors, cartographers and engineers. The impact of lead mining upon geological understanding and upon improving cartographic standards also requires more analysis, including studies of miners and mechanics as well as entrepreneurs, mineral collectors, geologists and map-makers.¹⁰ Finally, new and unexpected connections between the sciences and industry might be unearthed by further studies of natural history, agriculture, horticulture, meteorology and the earth sciences, with a focus upon those who actively participated and their audiences.

Paul Elliott and Robin Holgate

Fig. 4.15 Detail of Joseph Wright’s ‘Orrery’, showing a philosopher explaining the workings of the solar system to a group of rapt young listeners (© Derby Museums Trust)

References

¹ Jones, P 2008 Industrial Enlightenment: Science, Technology and Culture in Birmingham and the West Midlands. Manchester: MUP

² Fox, C 2009 The Arts of Industry in the Age of Enlightenment. New Haven: YUP; Porter, R 2000 Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World. London: Allen Lane; Trinder, B 2013 Britain’s Industrial Revolution. Lancaster: Carnegie

³ Schofield, R E 1963 The Lunar Society of Birmingham. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Uglow, J 2002 The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future. London: Faber

⁴ Musson, A and Robinson, E 1969 Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. Manchester: MUP

⁵ Jacob, M 1988 The Cultural Meaning of the Scientific Revolution. New York: Knopf

⁶ Mokyr, J 2002 The Gifts of Athena. Princeton: Princeton University Press

⁷ Fitton, R S and Wadsworth, A P 1958 The Strutts and Arkwrights. Manchester: MUP

⁸ Daniels, S 1999 Joseph Wright. London: Tate Gallery;  

Nicolson, B 1969 Joseph Wright: Painter of Light. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

⁹ Elliott, P A 2009 The Derby Philosophers: Science and Culture in British Urban Society. Manchester: MUP

¹⁰ Fox 2009, 74–6

18th century visitors to the Derwent Valley were initially attracted by the opportunity to take the waters at Matlock Bath and to absorb the sublime and picturesque landscapes celebrated by artists such as Thomas Smith and Joseph Wright¹ and praised in the poetry of Anna Seward and Erasmus Darwin.² The mills and their weirs provided additional attractions, drawing tourists ever since the opening of Lombe’s Silk Mill in 1721. By the 1730s, intrepid travellers braving the poor valley roads³ would have found at Matlock lodging houses and stabling associated with the improved Old Bath and, in contrast to the colder Buxton spa with its thermal waters, a temperate climate and water. Early travellers would have relied upon Defoe’s Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–6) as a companion, but by 1818 a contributor to the Monthly Magazine⁴ observed that ‘no county has been more frequently traversed by the curious and inquisitive, or more fully and minutely described’ than Derbyshire. By then, travellers would have been enticed by a wealth of literature, which by the mid-19th century included classic works by Rev. James Pilkington, Ebenezer Rhodes, Rev. Richard Ward and William Adam.⁵

Whilst this background is generally understood, further documentary research is required into certain aspects of Derwent Valley tourism prior to the coming of the railways.⁶ We need to know more about the kind of people who came and why? Where did they come from and how often? Where did they stay and what itineraries did they follow? How did this affect their lives and the lives of the Valley’s residents? We need better understanding of the development of tourist industries.⁷ How important was taking the waters, for instance, compared to appreciation of the scenery or curiosity about industrial landscapes? What were the impacts of changes in material culture and patterns of consumption?⁸ With disposable income, tourists were keen to purchase mementoes such as mineral specimens, Derby porcelain or Ashford black marble, which mineralogists such as White Watson of Bakewell and John Mawe of Matlock adroitly exploited. How did local people respond to the increasing footfall? While Matlock Bath was soon busy with hotels, lodging houses and museums, did other parts of the Valley benefit? Finally, drawing upon sources such as King’s Topographical Collection,⁹ how did 18th century tourism here compare with rival destinations, such as the Wye Valley, Snowdonia, the Highlands or the Lake District?¹⁰

Ros Westwood and Paul Elliott

Fig. 4.16 Detail of ‘Cascades below Matlock Bath, Derbyshire’, painted by Thomas Smith (c.1720–67;© Derby Museums Trust)

References

¹ Daniels, S 1999 Joseph Wright. London: Tate Gallery

² Darwin, E 1789 The Loves of the Plants; Copley, S and Garside, P (eds) 2010 The Politics of the Picturesque: Literature, Landscape and Aesthetics since 1770. Cambridge: CUP

³ Erichsen, N 1905 Highways and Byways in Derbyshire. London: Macmillan

⁴ Sourced by RW from the clipping collections in the Derbyshire Record Office

⁵ Pilkington, J 1789 A View of the Present State of Derbyshire, with an Account of its most Remarkable Antiquities. Derby: John Drewry; Rhodes, E 1818–23 Peak Scenery, or Excursions in Derbyshire. London; Ward, R 1827 A Guide to the Peak of Derbyshire. Birmingham: Ward; Adam, W 1838 Gem of the Peak, 1 edn. London: Longman

⁶ See Strategic Objective 5B for later tourism

⁷ Brighton, T 2004 The Discovery of the Peak District. Chichester: Phillimore

⁸ Brewer, J and Porter, R (eds) 1993 Consumption and the World of Goods. London: Routledge

⁹ www.bl.uk/collection-guides/topographical-views

¹⁰ Moir, E 1964 The Discovery of Britain. The English Tourists, 1540–1840. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; Berghoff, H and Korte, B 2002 The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience, 1600–2000. Basingstoke: Palgrave

Nonconformists or Dissenters¹ were religious groups effectively excluded from the Anglican Church because they failed to accept the re-imposition of the religious hierarchy and Book of Common Prayer after the Restoration of 1660. They included religious groups, sometimes known as ‘Old Dissenters’, such as the Quakers, Presbyterians,² Baptists, Congregationalists and Unitarians. The Wesleyans or Methodists, who emerged during the 18th century, remained in the Anglican Church until the death of Wesley in 1791 and are sometimes designated ‘New Dissenters’. Although mitigated by the 1689 Toleration Act and various Indemnity acts, Dissenters suffered various disadvantages under the Clarendon Code (1661–5) and Test Act (1673) until the repeal from 1828 of the Test and Corporation Acts,³ including exclusion from municipal or state offices and Oxford or Cambridge Universities. Some have argued that their religiously motivated work ethic, social disadvantages and close-knit communities spurred Dissenters to play prominent roles in innovative commercial, industrial and scientific activities, thereby helping to stimulate the Industrial Revolution.⁴ More recently, historians have learnt to appreciate better the complexity of religious affiliations, and in particular the practice of occasional conformity, in which individuals worshipped in both churches and chapels as it suited them.⁵

The Derwent Valley provides ample opportunities to investigate these matters.⁶ Whilst much work has been done on influential Dissenting families such as the Strutts,⁷ more analysis of lesser known families would be valuable. This ought to explore the commercial, industrial and cultural behaviour of Nonconformists, including comparison with the activities of Anglican clergy, the role of buildings such as chapels and schools and the impact of social structures and social mobility, in order to reveal underlying patterns and distinctions between communities. We know that many Dissenters worked closely alongside other religious denominations in charitable, improving, religious and political activities; more is to be learnt about co-operation and conflict in relation to these. More comparative research should be undertaken on the composition and behaviour of Nonconformist congregations to assess their role in commercial, industrial and social development, including intermarriage, the status of women and children, and the impact of religious, social and political divisions. The changing relationships between Nonconformists, Anglicans and other denominations also require further study to assess rivalries and co-operation in business, social and cultural affairs and the impact of occasional conformity. Finally, the means by which Dissenters acquired their education should be analysed, including membership of associations, the purchase, circulation and reading of printed material, and the educational role of Dissenting tutors at schools such as those at Derby and Belper.⁸

Paul Elliott

Fig.4.17 Wright’s portrait of the Rev John Pickering (1706–90), holding a mathematical diagram, emphasises the strong interest of many of the clergy in the discoveries of the Enlightenment (© Bridgman Art Gallery)[/caption]

References

¹ Lincoln, A 1971 Some Political and Social Ideas of English Dissent, 1763–1800. Cambridge: CUP; Watts, M R 1995 The Dissenters, Vol 2. Oxford: OUP

² Bolam, C G et al1968 The English Presbyterians. London: Allen and Unwin

³ McLachlan, H 1931 English Education under the Test Acts. Manchester: MUP

⁴ Merton, R K 1970 Science, Technology and Society in 17th Century England. London: Harper and Row; Cohen, B (ed) 1990 Puritanism and the Rise of Modern Science. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press

⁵ James, F and Inkster, I (eds) 2012 Religious Dissent and the Aikin-Barbauld Circle, 1740–1860. Cambridge: CUP

⁶ Elliott, P A 2009 The Derby Philosophers: Science and Culture in British Urban Society. Manchester: MUP; Hey, D 2008 Derbyshire. A History. Lancaster: Carnegie

⁷ Fitton, R F and Wadsworth, A P. 1958 The Strutts and the Arkwrights. Manchester: MUP

⁸ Hans, N 1951 New Trends in Education in the 18th Century London: Routledge; Watts, R 1998 The Unitarian Contribution to Education. London: Routledge

It has been argued that, by the middle of George III’s reign, England was not a nation of gentry but instead a land with a powerful and extensive middle class.¹ It had grown in response to protracted economic expansion, mild inflation and relatively low taxation. Rising levels of literacy from the 15th century, especially amongst the ‘middling sort’ engaged in manufacturing, trade and commerce, had contributed further to the growth of the middle classes, and the educational advances of the Enlightenment spurred yet further their development.² Never homogeneous, it included industrialists, university-educated lawyers, clerics, doctors and naval and military men, and became a major force in later Georgian society. Its members are immortalised in the novels of Jane Austen, William Makepeace Thackeray and later George Eliot, and are remembered by their authorship of seminal scientific works such as The Natural History of Selborne.³ Members were distinguished from the labouring majority by their possession of property – whether mobile capital, stock in trade or professional credentials – and by their exemption from manual labour. They helped to drive consumption and production, giving entrepreneurs like Sir Richard Arkwright and Jedediah Strutt opportunities for industrial growth and assisting more of those associated with the textile industry to rise through the middle classes.

The middle classes of the Derwent Valley appear in the portraiture of Joseph Wright,⁴ but their impact can also be seen in the architectural legacy of churches, chapels, schools, inns and shops. The names of the clergy, teachers and business owners are recorded in Trade Directories and other documents preserved in regional and national archives, and there is a rich seam to be mined of less famous individuals whose activities are recorded in local papers, archives and publications. The ideas, tastes, patterns of consumption and activities of the middle classes are to be found in the diaries, letters, business accounts, wills and personal records of men and women of diverse incomes, abilities and professions. Study of these would enable details of their businesses and personal lives to be stitched together, provide character to the population across the Derwent Valley and generate a richer view of daily lives than is available at present. The Royal Society, Society of Antiquaries, Georgian Society and British Library⁵ provide useful sources, along with the regional archives listed in Chapter 5. Recent models for such research can be found in the writing of Amanda Vickery,⁶ Jenny Uglow⁷ and Richard Holmes,⁸ and it would be interesting to extend these discussions to communities in the Derwent Valley.

Ros Westwood

References

¹ James, L. 2006 The Middle Class: A History. London: Little, Brown, 96–108; Langford, P 1989 A Polite and Commercial People: England 1727–1783. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 61–71

² Strategic Objective 3A; Seed, J 1992 ‘From ‘middling sort’ to middle class in late 18th century and early 19th century England’ in Bush, M L (ed) Social Orders and Social Classes in Europe since 1500. London: Longman

³ White, G 1789. The Natural History of Selborne

⁴ Daniels, S 1998 Joseph Wright. London: Tate Gallery

⁵http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/catblhold/estchistory/estchistory.html

⁶ Vickery, A 1998 The Gentleman’s Daughter: Women’s Lives in Georgian England. London: YUP; Vickery, A 2009 Behind Closed Doors: At Home in Georgian England. London: YUP

⁷ Uglow, J 2002 The Lunar Men: The Friends who made the Future 1730–1812. London: Faber and Faber; Uglow, J 2014 In These Times: Living in Britain through Napoleon’s Wars 1793–1815. London: Faber and Faber

⁸ Holmes, R 2008. The Age of Wonder. London: Harper Press

Fig.4.18 Detail of a pencil, pen and ink sketch by John Nixon (c.1750–1818) portraying the affluent middle class picnicking in the Peak District. It provides an evocative image of‘ the ‘Miss Johnsons of Loughborough, J.N. [self-portrait: second figure from the right] and Jasper Atkinson at dinner in a cave in Dove Dale, Derbyshire’ (© Buxton Museum and Art Gallery)